Ans) In 19th century Europe, some industrialists preferred hand labour over machines due to following reasons-

1. In Victorian Britain, there was no shortage of human labour, poor peasants and vagrants moved to the cities in large number in search of jobs. When there is plenty of labour, wages are low. Thus industrialists had no problem of labour shortages or high wage costs. They were not interested in machines that got rid of human labour.
2. In many industries the demand for labour was fluctuating based on season. Gas works and breweries were especially busy through the cold months. Book-binders and printers, catering to Christmas demand too needed extra hands before December. The repairing and decoration work on the seaports was also done in winter. In all such industries where production fluctuated with the season, industrialists usually preferred hand labour, employing workers for the season.
3. A range of products could be produced only with hand labour. Machines were used to produce uniforms, standardised goods in large numbers. The demand in the market was often for goods with intricate designs and specific shapes.
4. In Victorian Britain, the upper classes the aristocrats and the bourgeoisie preferred handmade things. Handmade products came to symbolise refinement and class. They were better finished, individually produced and carefully designed.

Ans) The Process of Industrialisation :-

1. Both cotton and metal industry were the most flourished industries in Britain. Growing at a rapid pace, cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialisation upto the 1840s. After that the iron and steel industry led the way With the expansion of railways in England from the 1840s and in the colonies from the 1860s, the demand for iron and steel increased rapidly. By 1873 Britain was exporting iron and steel worth about $ 77 million which was double the value of its cotton export.
2. ) The new industries could not easily marginalise traditional industries. Even at the end of the 19th century, the total workforce employed in technologically advanced industrial sectors was not more than 20 percent. Textiles was a dynamic sector, but a large portion of the output was produced not within factories, but outside, within domestic units.
3. Although the pace of change in the ‘traditional’ industries was not set by steam powered cotton or metal industries, but they did not remain entirely stagnant. Apparently ordinary and small innovations were the basis of growth in many non- mechanised sectors like food processing, building, pottery, glass work, tanning, furniture making and production of implements.
4. Technological changes occured gradually. They did not spread dramatically across the industrial landscape. New technology was expensive and merchants and industrialists were cautious about using it. The machines often broke down and repairing was costly. They were not as effective as their inventors and manufacturers claimed.

Historians now have come to recognise that the typical worker in the mid 19th century was not a machine operator but the traditional craftsperson and labourers.

Ans) To expand the market products, advertisements played an important role through the following ways:-

1. When Manchester industrialists began selling cloth in India, they put labels on the cloth bundles. The label was needed to make the place of manufacturer and the name of the company familiar to the buyer) When buyers saw ‘MADE IN MANCHESTER written in bold on the label they were expected to feel confident about buying the cloth.
2. Labels did not only carry words and texts. They also carried images that were very often beautifully illustrated. If we look at these old labels, we can have some idea of the mind of the manufacturers) their circulations and the way they appealed to the people.
3. Images of Indian Gods and Goddesses usually appeared on these labels. Through the images of Gods and Goddesses, manufacturers wanted to show that Gods gave divine approval to the goods being sold.) The imprinted image of Krishna or Saraswati was also intended to make the manufacturers from a foreign land appear somewhat familiar to Indian people.
4. By the late 19th century, manufacturers were printing calendars to popularise their products. Unlike newspapers and magazines, calendars were used even by illiterate people. They were hung in tea shops and in poor people’s homes, in offices and middle class apartments. Those who hung the calendars had to see the advertisements day after day, throughout the year.
5. Like the images of Gods, figures of important personages, of emperors and nawabs, adorned advertisement and calendars. The message very often seemed to say; if you respect the royal figure, then respect this product.) When the product was being used by kings, or produced under royal command, its quality could not be questioned.When Indian manufacturers advertised the nationalist message was clear and loud. If you care for the nation then buy products that Indians produce. Advertisements became a vehicle of the nationalist message of swadeshi.

Ans) Development of small-scale industries:-

1. After the First World War factory industries grew steadily but large industries formed only a small segment of the economy. Most of them (about 67 percent in 1911) were located in Bengal and Bombay. Over the rest of the country, small-scale production continued to predominate.
2. Only a small proportion of the total industrial labour force worked in registered factories. It was 5 percent in 1911 and 10 percent in 1931. Rest of the workers were. employed in workshops and household units located in alleys and bylanes.
3. In fact, in some instances, handicrafts production actually expanded in the 20th century. This is true even in the case of the handloom sector. Cheap machine made thread wiped out the spinning industry in the 19th century but the weavers survived despite problems. In the 20th century, handloom cloth production expanded steadily almost trebling between 1900 and 1940.
4. In the second decade of the 20th century, we find weavers using looms with a fly shuttle. This increased output per worker, speeded up production and reduced labour demand. (5) By 1941, over 35 percent of handlooms in India were installed with fly shuttles. This proportion exceeded upto 70-80 percent in regions like Travancore, Madras, Mysore, Cochin, Bengal. Besides, some other small innovations helped weavers improve their productivity and compete with the mill sector.

Ans) Britain and the History of Cotton :-

1. The earliest factories in England came up by the 1730s. But it was only in the late 18th century that the member of factories multiplied.
2. Cotton was the first symbol of the new era. Its production rolled in the late 19th century.
3. In 1760, Britain was importing 2-5 million pounds of raw cotton to feed its cotton industry. By 1787 this import rose upto 22 million pounds. This increase was a result of a number of changes within the process of production.
4. In the 18th century many inventions increased the efficiency of each step of the production process (carding, twisting and spinning and rolling). They enhanced the output per worker and made possible the production of stronger threads and yarn.
5. Richard Arkwright created the cotton mill. Till this time, cloth production was spread all over the countryside. It was carried out within village household.
6. But now the new expensive machines could be purchased and set up in the mill. Within the mill all the processes were brought together under one roof and management. It made possible to supervise the production process, watch over quality and regulate the labour.
7. Cotton was the most dynamic industry in Britain. Growing at a rapid pace, cotton was the leading sector in the first phase of industrialisation upto the 1840s.
8. As cotton industries developed in England, industrial groups began worrying about imports from other countries. They forced the government to impose import duties on cotton textiles so that Manchester goods could sell in Britain without facing any competition from outside. At the same time, industrialists of India persuaded the East India Company to sell British manufacturers in Indian markets as well.

After the First World War, Manchester could never recapture its old position in the Indian market. Unable to modernise and compete with the US, Germany and Japan, the economy of Britain crumbled after the war. Cotton production collapsed and exports of cotton cloth from Britain fell dramatically.

Ans)

1. Industries were set up in different regions of the country by varying sort of people. The history of many business groups goes back to trade with China. From the late 18th century, the British in India began exporting opium to China and took tea from China to England. Many Indian were involved in this trade as the assistants. They provided finance, procured supplies and shipped consignments.
2. Having earned through trade. Some of these businessmen had visions of developing industrial enterprises in India. In Bengal, Dwarkanath Tagore earned the enormous wealth through the China trade and began to invest in industries. Between 1830s and 1840s, he set up 6 joint stock companies. Tagore’s enterprises sank along with those of others in the wider business crises of the 1840s, but late in the 19th century many of the China traders became successful industrialists.
3. In Bombay, Parsis like Dinshaw Petit and Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata who built huge industrial empires in India, accumulated their initial wealth partly from exports to China, and partly from raw cotton shipments to England.
4. Seth Hukumchand a Marwari businessmen who set up the first Indian jute mill in Calcutta in 1917, also traded with China. So did the father as well as grandfather of the famous industrialist G. D. Birla.

1. Women workers in Britain attacked the Spinning Jenny.
2. In the 17^th century merchants from towns in Europe began employing peasants and artisans within the villages.
3. The port of Surat declined by the end of the 18^th century.
4. The East India Company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India.

Ans)

1. Refer in Short Type Answer – Que No – 4
2. Refer in Short Type Answer – Que No – 3
3. Refer in Short Type Answer – Que No – 2

4) The East India company appointed gomasthas to supervise weavers in India-After establishing its power in India, the East India Company could assert a monopoly right to trade. It developed a system of management and control that would eliminate competition, control costs and ensure regular supplies of cotton and silk goods This it did in the following steps-

1. The company tried to eliminate the existing traders and brokers connected with the cloth trade and established more direct control over the weave The company appointed a paid servant called the gomastha to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth.
2. The company prevented its weavers from dealing with other buyers. For this they were paid in advances. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their production. Those who took loans had to hand over the produced cloth to the gomastha. They could not take it to any other trader.
3. Soon in many weaving villages there were reports of clashes between weavers and gomasthas. The new gomasthas were outsiders with no long term social link with the village. The weavers were punished through beating and flogging. Now the weavers neither bargained for prices nor sell goods to different buyers. The price they received from the company was miserably low and the loans they had accepted tied them to the company.

Ans) Proto-industrialisation before factories began to set up in England and Europe, there was large-scale industrial production for an international market. This production was not based on factories. Many historians now refer to this phase of industrialisation as proto-industrialisation.

This proto-industrial system was thus part of a network of commercial exchanges. It was controlled by merchant and the goods were produced in houses not in factories. At each stage of production 20 to 25 workers were employed by each merchant.

Ans) Through the following ways the East India company procured regular supplies of cotton and silk textiles from Indian weavers:-

1. The East India Company appointed paid servants known as the Gomasthas to supervise weavers, collect supplies and examine the quality of cloth.
2. Once an order was placed, the weavers were given loans to purchase the raw material for their production. Those who took loans had to handover the cloth they produced to the Gomasthas. They could not sell it to any other traders.
3. As loans flowed in and the demand for fine textiles expanded, weavers eagerly took the advances in the hope to earn more. The weavers lost the space to bargain for prices and sell to different buyers. The price they received from the company was miserably low but the loans they had accepted tied them to the company.

Ans) Refer Answer No – 5

Ans) Refer in Short Type Answer – Que No – 10