Ans) Alluvial Soil – This is a very important soil. It is found in a vast area covering about 40 per cent of the land area of ​​India. Virtually the entire northern plains are composed of alluvial soil. This soil is eroded by the three major rivers of the Himalayas – Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra – and deposited in the northern plains. These rivers have travelled hundreds of kilometres over thousands of years and deposited fine particles of soil at their mouths. Apart from the entire northern plains, this soil is also spread in narrow corridors in Rajasthan and Gujarat and in the deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

Features of alluvial soil:-

1. This soil consists of various proportions of sand, silt and clay.
2. It is the most fertile soil.
3. It mostly contains potash, phosphoric acid, and lime in adequate proportion.
4. It lacks nitrogen and organic matter.
5. It is easy to dig wells and canals in this soil. Thus it is very useful for agriculture.

Black Soil – This soil is black in colour. Hence, it is called black soil. It is formed by lava flow. It is rich in iron and aluminium and also contains a high amount of magma. It has an amazing moisture retention capacity. Locally, it is called ‘regur’. Black soil covers the plateaus of Maharashtra, Saurashtra, Malwa, Madhya Pradesh, and Chhattisgarh.

Features of black soil:-

1. Black soil is formed by extremely fine clayey material.
2. It is well known for its capacity to hold moisture.
3. It is rich in soil nutrients such as calcium carbonate, magnesium, potash, and lime.
4. This soil is most suitable for growing cotton. Thus, it is also called as black cotton soil.

Ans) Causes of Soil Erosion –  Major causes of soil erosion are as follows:-

1. Destruction of forests – To meet the demands of land for agricultural expansion, wood for fuel and building construction, forests have been destroyed for the last many years. As a result, the power to control water flow is reduced and land degradation is increased.
2. Over-grazing – Forest grasses are being grazed by animals due to uncontrolled animal grazing. It removed the upper surface of land, and land is being eroded.
3.  Shifting cultivation practiced by tribals – In many parts of our country, tribals do farming by clearing forests. Then moved to other places and left the land barren. It creates a degradation problem for the previous land.
4. Wind erosion – This kind of erosion takes place due to the removal of vegetation. Wind erosion also occurs due to the decreasing underground water level.
5. Heavy Rainfall – Heavy rains caused soil erosion because soil is eroded through leaching. Actually, soil erosion takes place in three steps-top soil erosion, gully erosion, and ultimately sheet erosion.

Ans) Soil Conservation – Natural resources are largely destroyed due to the increasing population. Many natural resources are on the verge of destruction. Thus, soil conservation is essential to stop this destruction. The following measures can be adopted for soil conservation:-

1. Scientific methods should be adopted to maintain soil fertility.
2. Organic manure, along with chemical fertilizers, should be used to maintain soil fertility.
3. Preventing soil erosion by planting trees.
4. Prevent soil erosion by breaking the water flows through dams on the rivers.
5. Making terrace cultivation in the hilly areas.
6. Planting shelter belts in fields.
7. Developing pasture lands in rural areas.

Ans) The problems of land degradation are as follows:-

1. Human activities have not only brought about degradation of land but have also aggravated the pace of natural forces to cause damage to land.
2. In India, about 13 crore hectares of land are degraded. Out of which about 28 percent of land is under degraded forest; 56 percent area is eroded by water, and the remaining land is saline and alkaline.
3. Some human activities, such as deforestation, overgrazing, mining, and quarrying too have also contributed significantly to land degradation.
4. Mining sites are abandoned after excavation work is complete, leaving deep scars and traces of overburdening. In states like Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, deforestation due to mining has caused severe land degradation.
5. Overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land degradation in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
6.  In states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh, over-irrigation is responsible for land degradation. Over-irrigation creates waterlogging, which leads to an increase in salinity and alkalinity in the soil.
7. The mineral processing, like grinding of limestone for the cement industry and calcite and soapstone for the ceramic industry, generates a huge quantity of dust in the atmosphere. It retards the process of infiltration of water into the soil after it settles down on the land.

Measures to Prevent Land Degradation – Problems of land degradation can be resolved by various measures. Afforestation and proper management of grazing can help to some extent. Planting of shelter belts of plants, control of over-grazing, and stabilisation of sand dunes by growing thorny bushes are some of the methods to check land degradation in arid areas. Proper management of waste lands, control of mining activities, proper discharge and disposal of industrial effluents and wastes after treatment can reduce land and water degradation.

Ans) Planning is the widely accepted strategy for judicious use of resources. Therefore, it is more important in a country like India, which has enormous diversity in the availability of resources. There are regions here that are rich in certain types of resources but are deficient in some other resources. There are some regions that are self-sufficient in terms of the availability of resources, and there are some regions that have an acute shortage of some vital resources. Hence, balanced resource planning is essential at the national, state, regional, and local levels.

Steps of Resource Planning – Resource planning is a complex process that involves the following steps:-

1. Identification and inventory of resources across the different states of the country. This work involves surveying, mapping, qualitative and quantitative estimation, and measurement of the resources.
2. Evolving a planning structure endowed with appropriate technology, skill, and institutional setup for implementing resource development plans.
3. Matching the resource development plans with overall national development plans.

India has made concerted efforts to achieve the goals of resource planning right from the first five-year plan launched after independence.

Ans) Conservation of Resources – Resources play an important role in any type of development. But irrational consumption and over-utilization of resources may lead to socio-economic and environmental problems. To prevent these problems, resource conservation at various levels is important. This had been the main concern of the leaders and thinkers from the beginning. For example, Gandhiji was very apt in voicing his concern about resource conservation in these words: “There is enough for everybody’s need and not for anybody’s greed.” According to him, the greedy and selfish individuals and the exploitative nature of modern technology are the root causes for resource depletion at the global level. He was against mass production, instead favouring production by the masses.

Ans) Refer Question no. 7 in short-type question.

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Technical and economic development has led to more consumption of resources due to the increase in demand for goods and services. Technical and economic development have contributed to increased resource consumption by enabling the creation of new industries, technologies, and consumer products, while also supporting population growth and urbanization. Technical and economic development has led to increased consumption of resources in several ways:-

1. Population growth – Both technological and economic development have contributed to population growth, which increases the demand for resources.
2. Industrialization – Technical development has enabled the creation of machines that can perform tasks faster and more efficiently than humans. This has led to the growth of industries and manufacturing, which require large amounts of natural resources such as minerals, water, and energy.
3. Technological advancement – Technological development has enabled the creation of new devices and services that have become an integral part of our daily lives. This includes smartphones, computers, and other electronic devices, which require rare earth elements, metals, and minerals for their production.
4. Construction – Economic development has led to an increase in the construction of buildings, infrastructure, and other facilities, which require large amounts of materials such as cement, steel, and glass. The production of these materials can have significant environmental impacts, including greenhouse gas emissions, water and air pollution, and habitat destruction.

Ans) Classification of Soils in India :-

Alluvial Soil and its Features – Follow Que No. 1

Black Soil and its Features – Follow Que No. 1

Red Soil – It is found in red, yellow, brown, etc. colours. It is a less fertile soil. This type of soil is mainly found in the Indian peninsula. This soil lacks phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and organic matter. Red soil develops in the dry areas of the eastern and southern parts of the Deccan Plateau. It is also found in Odisha, Chhattisgarh, the southern parts of the middle Gangetic plain, and the mountainous regions of the Western Ghats.

Features of Red Soil:-

1. This soil develops a reddish colour due to diffusion of excess iron.
2. It develops from ancient crystalline rocks.
3. It is loamy in lower parts of land and on the higher parts, it looks like unorganised kankar.

Laterite Soil – This is a less fertile soil. It is suitable for growing grasses and shrubs. It is spread over the eastern part of the Peninsular Plateau, some parts of Tamil Nadu and Odisha, and some parts of the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the north. Laterite soil is also found in Meghalaya.

Features of Lateral Soil:-

1. Laterite soil lacks fertility due to intense leaching.
2. When manured and irrigated, it is suitable for growing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, cashew nut etc.
3. These soils are mostly deep, acidic and deficient in plant nutrients.

Arid Soil– This soil is eroded from the Rann of Kutch by the southwest monsoon and deposited in the dry western parts of India. This type of soil is found mainly in tropical areas, especially in western Rajasthan, Gujarat, southern Punjab, southern Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh.

Features of Arid Soil:-

1. Arid soils range from red to brown in colour.
2. It is sandy in texture having coarse grains of sand.
3.  It has high salt content.
4. It has less moisture and also lacks humus content but it becomes fertile after proper irrigation.

Mountain/ Forest Soil– This soil is found in the Himalayan mountain ranges. This soil is found in Kashmir, hilly areas of Uttar Pradesh and also in Assam, West Bengal, and Kangra, etc.

Features of Mountain/ Forest Soil:-

1. This soil is thin, loamy and porous.
2. It is silty in vallies and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
3. ) It is suitable to grow rice, wheat and potatoes. In some parts tea is also grown.

Ans) Soil erosion is the loss of topsoil due to natural causes such as wind, rain, and floods, and is accelerated by human activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, and poor agricultural practices. Some of the Causes of soil erosion are:-

1. Water – Heavy rainfall and flooding can wash away large amounts of topsoil, a process that can be seen in sheet, rill, and gully erosion.
2. Wind – Strong winds can carry away loose soil particles, especially from bare, exposed fields.
3. Deforestation – Removing trees and forests eliminates their root systems that anchor the soil, leaving it vulnerable to erosion from wind and water.
4. Agriculture – Over-plowing, excessive use of land for the same crops, and leaving fields bare during fallow periods can deplete soil nutrients and expose the soil to erosion.
5. Construction and Urbanization – Clearing land for building and roads removes vegetation, and the resulting paved surfaces can channel water, increasing runoff and erosion. 

The processes of soil conservation are as follows:-

1. Afforestation and Reforestation – Planting trees and other vegetation provides root systems to bind the soil and creates ground cover that protects it from wind and rain.
2. Contour Plowing – Farmers plow along the contours of the land rather than up and down the slope, creating ridges that slow down water runoff.
3. Cover cropping – Planting non-cash crops such as grasses and legumes to protect the soil during the fallow period.
4. Crop Rotation and Diversification – Rotating crops or planting a variety of crops can help replenish soil nutrients and improve soil structure, making it less susceptible to erosion.
5. Water Management – Constructing dams and implementing proper irrigation practices can help control water flow, which is crucial for preventing water-based soil erosion.

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