Ans) The following were the steps taken by the French revolutionaries to create a sense of collective identity among the French people

1. The ideas of the fatherland and the citizen emphasised the notion of a united community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French flag, a tricolor, replaced the former royal standard.
3. The Estates General, which comprised of the clergy, the nobility and the com,mons was renamed the National assembly and was elected by a group of active citizens. 
4. New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated. All this was done in the name of the nation.
5. A central administrative system made uniform laws of the entire nation.
6. Regional dialects were discouraged and French as a common language of the nation.

Ans) The unification of Germany in the 19th century was a complex process driven by a variety of factors, including rising nationalism, Prussian ambition, and a series of strategic wars waged by Otto von Bismarck. A brief description of the process is as follows:-

1. German nationalism – After the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), shared culture, language, and history created a desire for a unified German state.
2. Early challenges – Attempts to unify the nation-state through an elected parliament in 1848 were stifled. The German Confederation, established in 1815 under Austrian leadership, also posed challenges to unity.
3. Prussian leadership – Prussia became the main force behind the unification.
4. Bismarck’s “blood and iron” strategy – Prussian minister-president Otto von Bismarck used military force and diplomacy, known as “realpolitik.”
5. Wars of Unification – Prussia fought three wars in seven years to achieve unification:
   • The Danish War (1864) – Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark and annexed Schleswig and Holstein.
   • The Austro-Prussian War (1866) – Prussia’s victory over Austria ended Austrian influence in German affairs, dissolved the German Confederation, and created the North German Confederation, led by Prussia.
   • The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) – Bismarck initiated this war, uniting the northern and southern German states against France. Prussia’s victory led to the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to France.
6. The Declaration of the German Empire – On January 18, 1871, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at the Palace of Versailles, formally unifying Germany.

In short, German unification involved the merging of several states into one nation-state, which was primarily conducted by Prussia and Bismarck through strategic wars and diplomacy. This process established the German Empire under Prussian control, changing the European balance of power.

Ans) Napoleon made the following changes to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him –

1. In the vast territories under his control, Napoleon began to implement many of the reforms that he had already implemented in France. Napoleon had destroyed democracy in France by restoring the monarchy, but in the administrative sphere he incorporated revolutionary principles to make the entire system more rational and efficient.
2. The Civil Code of 1804, which is generally known as the Napoleonic Code, did away with all privileges based on birth.
3. Napoleon established equality before the law and secured the right to property.
4. In the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial duties.
5. Union restrictions were also removed in towns. Transport and communication system were improved.

Ans) During the 19th century, both Germany and Italy saw significant changes, evolving from fragmented states into unified nations. In Germany, a combination of Otto von Bismarck’s political maneuverings and military victories led to unification in 1871. Similarly, Italy achieved unification through a combination of revolutionary movements and strategic alliances led by leaders such as Giuseppe Mazzini, culminating in a unified empire by 1870.

In the nineteenth century, Germany and Italy were the developed countries which were as follows:-

Germany:–

1. Fragmentation – Before the 19th century, German territory was divided into numerous independent kingdoms, principalities, and independent cities.
2. Nationalism – The rise of nationalism throughout Europe fueled a desire for unification among the German-speaking population.
3. Bismarck’s Role – Prussian Minister-President Otto von Bismarck skillfully used diplomacy and war to bring about unification. He planned wars with Denmark, Austria, and France to garner support and expand Prussia’s influence.
4. Prussian Dominance – Prussia, led by King Wilhelm I and Bismarck, played a central role in the unification process with its strong military and industrial base.
5. Final Unification – The German Empire was proclaimed in 1871, with Wilhelm I becoming German Emperor.

Italy:–

1. Fragmentation – Like Germany, Italy was a collection of various independent states, including the Papal States, kingdoms, and duchies.
2. Revolutionary Movements – People like Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi led revolutionary movements aimed at unifying Italy and establishing a republic.
3. Sardinian Leadership – The Kingdom of Sardinia, led by King Victor Emmanuel II and Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, played a key role in the unification process by strategically allying with other kingdoms and engaging in diplomacy and warfare.
4. Strategic Alliances – Cavour forged alliances with France and Prussia to weaken Austrian influence in Italy.
5. Final Unification – By 1870, most of the Italian peninsula had been unified, and Rome joined in 1871, completing the unification process.

Ans) The formation of the nation-state in Britain was not the result of a sudden upheaval. It was the result of a long process. Thus, the history of nationalism in Britain differed from that of the rest of Europe. The following were the reasons behind this-

1. The primary identity of the people living in the British Isles was ethnic, such as the English, Welsh, Scots, or Irish. All these ethnic groups had their own cultural and political traditions. But as the wealth, importance, and power of the English nation grew, it was able to establish its influence over the other nations of the island.
2. After a long struggle and tussle, the English Parliament took power from the monarchy in 1688. Through this Parliament, a nation-state was formed with England at the center.
3. The ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’ was formed through the Union Act (1707) between England and Scotland. Through this Act, in fact, England became able to exert its influence over Scotland. From now on, the British Parliament was dominated by its English members. The growth of British identity meant that Scotland’s individual culture and political institutions were systematically suppressed.
4. Ireland was deeply divided between Catholic and Protestant religious groups. The British helped Ireland’s Protestants establish their dominance over a largely Catholic country. Catholic rebellions against British dominance were suppressed.
5. After the failure of the rebellion led by Wolfe Tone and his United Irishmen (1798), Ireland was forcibly incorporated into the United Kingdom in 1801.
6. A new ‘British nation’ was created through the promotion of a dominant English culture. The symbols of the new Britain – the British flag (the Union Jack), the national anthem (God Save Our Noble King), and the English language were promoted, and the old nations survived only as subordinate partners in this union.

Ans) Nationalist tensions in the Balkans emerged due to the following reasons –

1. After 1871, the most serious source of nationalist tension was the Balkan region. This region was geographically and ethnically diverse, comprising modern Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Greece, Macedonia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Serbia, and Montenegro. The inhabitants of these regions were commonly called Slavs.
2. A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The fragmentation of the Ottoman Empire and the promotion of romantic nationalism in the Balkans made the region very explosive.
3. In the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms, but it had little success. One by one, its subordinate European nationalities broke away from its control and declared independence. The peoples of the Balkans made their claims for independence on the basis of political rights based on nationality.
4. As the various Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan region became an area of intense conflict. The Balkan states were extremely jealous of each other and wanted to gain more territory at each other’s expense. The situation became even more complicated as competition began to emerge between the major powers in the Balkans.
5. At this time, there was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies as well as naval and military power. Russia, Germany, England, and Austro-Hungary, each power was interested in increasing its dominance over the Balkans by opposing the control of the other powers. This resulted in several wars in the region and eventually the First World War.

Ans) In 1848, parallel to the revolts of poor, unemployed and hungry peasants and workers in many European countries, a revolution led by the middle class was also underway. Liberals supported revolutionary, political, social, and economic ideas.

The events of February 1848 in France resulted in the abdication of the monarchy and the establishment of a republic based on universal male suffrage. In other parts of Europe, where independent nation-states did not yet exist, such as Germany, Italy, Poland, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire, liberal middle-class men and women linked their demands for constitutionalism with national unification. They took advantage of the growing mass movement and put forward their demands for the creation of a nation-state. This nation-state was to be based on parliamentary principles such as a constitution, freedom of the press, and freedom to form associations.

The issue of granting political rights to women was a controversial issue within the liberal movement, although over the years, a large number of women had actively participated in it. Slavery and bonded labour were abolished in most European countries due to the efforts of the liberals.

Ans) Nationalism did not develop only through wars and territorial expansion. Culture played an important role in the formation of the concept of the nation. Art, poetry, stories, and music helped to express and shape nationalist sentiments. Following are the examples –

1. Romanticism – Romanticism was a cultural movement that aimed to develop a specific form of nationalist sentiment. Romanticist artists and poets generally criticized the glorification of logic and science and instead focused on emotions, intuition, and mystical feelings. They attempted to create a sense of a common collective heritage, a shared cultural past as the basis of a nation.
2. Johann Gottfried – German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder claimed that true German culture lay in the common people. The true spirit of the nation (Volksgeist) was popularised through folk songs, folk poetry, and folk dances. The collection and recording of these forms of folk culture were essential to the project of nation-building. The emphasis on the collection of local language and local folklore was not only to revive ancient national sentiments but also to convey the modern nationalist message to the masses who were mostly illiterate.
3. Poland– In the second half of the 18th century, the great powers like Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitioned Poland. Although Poland no longer existed as an independent territory, nationalist sentiments were kept alive through music and language. For example, Karol Kurpinski celebrated the national struggle through his operas and music and transformed folk dances like ‘Polonaise’ and ‘Mazurka’ into nationalist symbols.

Ans) The first clear expression of nationalism came with the French Revolution of 1789. From the very beginning, the French revolutionaries took several steps to inculcate a sense of collective identity among the French people.

1. The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized the notion of a unified community enjoying equal rights under a constitution.
2. A new French flag – the tricolor – was chosen to replace the former royal flag.
3. The Estates General was elected by a body of active citizens and renamed the ‘National Assembly’.
4. New hymns were composed, oaths were taken, and martyrs were commemorated. All in the name of the nation.
5. A centralised administrative system was established, which made uniform laws for all citizens within its territory.
6. Internal customs and duties were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted.
7. Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language of the nation because it was spoken and written in Paris.

The revolutionaries also declared that it was the goal and the destiny of the French nation to liberate Europeans from despotism. In other words, France would help other peoples of Europe to become nations.

Ans) In the years after 1815, fear of repression forced many liberal-nationalists to go underground. Secret societies were established in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread their ideas. Being a revolutionary at that time meant a commitment to opposing the monarchical systems established after the Congress of Vienna, and a revolutionary needed to fight for freedom and independence.

Most revolutionaries argued that the creation of nation-states was an essential part of the struggle for independence. One such person was the Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Mazzini. He established two underground societies. The first, Young Italy in Marseilles, and the second, Young Europe in Bern, whose members were like-minded young people from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states. Mazzini believed that God had created nations to be the natural units of mankind. Thus, Italy could not remain a fragment of small states and empires. It had to be molded into a unified republic within a broad coalition of nations. This unification could be the basis for Italian independence. Following his model, secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. Mazzini’s relentless opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened the conservatives. Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’.

Ans) During the French Revolution, artists used feminine allegories to depict ideas such as liberty, justice, and the republic. These ideals were represented through specific objects or symbols. In the 19th century, artists created similar feminine allegories.

Marianne – Statues of Marianne were erected in public squares to remind the public of the national symbol of unity and inspire them to join it. Her symbols were also taken from the symbols of liberty and the republic – the red cap, the tricolor, and the cockade. Images of Marianne were minted on coins and stamps.

Germania – Germania became the allegory of the German nation. In visual depictions, Germania wears a crown of oak leaves because the German oak is a symbol of valor. Germania’s sword reads: “The German sword protects the German Rhine.” In 1848, the black, red, and gold tricolor flag of the liberal-nationalists was banned by the dukes of the German states. The rays of the rising sun represent the beginning of a new era.

Ans) A brief description of the process of German unification is as follows –

1. In 1848, nationalist sentiments were widespread among middle-class Germans, and they attempted to consolidate the various regions of the German Confederation into a nation-state governed by an elected parliament. But this liberal initiative of nation-building was suppressed by the combined forces of the monarchy and the army.
2. Prussia led the national unification movement. Its chief minister, Otto von Bismarck, was the architect of this process.
3. Three wars in seven years with Austria, Denmark, and France ended with Prussian victory, and the process of unification began.
4. In January 1871, King William I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at a ceremony held at Versailles.
5. On the morning of January 18, 1871, the princes of the German principalities, representatives of the army, Prussia’s leading ministers, including chief minister Otto von Bismarck, gathered in an assembly. The assembly proclaimed the new German Empire under the leadership of Kaiser William I of Prussia.

1. Friedrich List – Friedrich List – Friedrich List, professor of economics at the University of Tubingen, Germany, wrote in 1834. The purpose of the Zollverein is to bind the Germans economically into a nation. It will strengthen the nation materially as much by safeguarding its external interests as by stimulating its internal productivity. It should awaken and elevate the national spirit through the blending of individual and provincial interests. The German people have realized that a free economic system is the only means of awakening the national spirit.
2. Giuseppe Mazzini – Giuseppe Mazzini – Giuseppe was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in Genoa in 1807 and became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. Mazzini founded underground societies. The first was Young Italy in Marseilles and the second was Young Europe in Bern, whose members were like-minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states. Mazzini believed that God had created nations to be the natural unit of mankind. Therefore, Italy could not remain a fragment of small states and empires. It had to be molded into a unified republic within a broad coalition of nations. This unification could be the basis of Italian independence. Following his model, secret societies were established in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland. Mazzini’s consistent opposition to monarchy and his vision of democratic republics frightened conservatives.
3. Giuseppe Garibaldi – Giuseppe Garibaldi was famous among Italian freedom fighters. He belonged to a family involved in coastal trade and was himself a sailor in the merchant navy. In 1833 he met Mazzini, joined the ‘Young Italy’ movement and took part in the republican uprising in Piedmont in 1834. The uprising was suppressed, and Garibaldi had to flee to South America, where he remained in exile until 1848. In 1854, he supported Victor Emmanuel II who was attempting the unification of the Italian states. In 1860, Garibaldi led the famous ‘Expedition of the Thousand’ to South Italy. New volunteers constantly joined the expedition and their number reached about 30,000. They were famous as the ‘Red Shirts’. In 1867, an army of volunteers led by Garibaldi went to Rome to fight the Papal States, which was the last obstacle to the unification of Italy. A French army was stationed there. The Red Shirts could not stand up to the combined French and Papal troops. Only in 1870, during the war with Prussia, France withdrew its troops from Rome and the Papal States finally joined Italy.
4. Frankfurt parliament – In the German regions, a large number of political associations gathered in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German national assembly. On 18 May 1848, the 831 elected representatives joined a celebratory procession to take their places in the Frankfurt Parliament. This parliament was convened in St. Paul’s Church. They drafted a constitution for a German nation that was to be led by a monarchy that was subject to a parliament. When the representatives offered the crown to King Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia, he refused it and joined with other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. While opposition from the aristocracy and the military grew stronger, the social base of the parliament eroded. The parliament was dominated by the middle class, which opposed the demands of workers and artisans and lost their support as a result.
5. Louise Otto-Peters – She was a political activist who founded a women’s magazine and later a feminist political union. The first issue of her newspaper (21 April 1849) carried the following editorial: ‘Let us ask how many men, obsessed with the ideas of living and dying for freedom, would be willing to fight for the freedom of the entire people, of all human beings? When they are asked this question, they readily say “Yes!”, although their tireless efforts are for the benefit of only half of humanity – men. But freedom is indivisible! Therefore, free men must not tolerate being surrounded by unfreedom.
6. Count Camillo de Cavour – Count Camillo de Cavour was the man who completed the second phase of the independence movement in Italy. In 1852, Victor Emmanuel appointed Cavour as the Prime Minister of Sardinia-Piedmont. Cavour, the Prime Minister who led the movement for the unification of the Italian regions, was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. Like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite, he spoke French much better than Italian. Through a clever diplomatic alliance made by Cavour with France, Sardinia-Piedmont succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Cavour died on 6 June 1861. But he succeeded in achieving his objectives, because in February 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed Emperor of Italy by the Italian Parliament.
7. Story of the Grimm brothers – The brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm were born in the German city of Hanau in 1785 and 1786, respectively. While they were both studying law, they became interested in collecting old folktales. They had been doing this work by traveling from village to village for six years. They published their first collection of stories in 1812. Later, both brothers became active in liberal politics. They had a special interest in the movement for freedom of the press. Meanwhile, they also published a 33-volume dictionary of the German language. The Grimm brothers saw French dominance as a threat to German culture. They believed that the folktales they collected were expressions of pure and authentic German spirit. They saw their projects of collecting folktales and developing the German language as part of a broader effort to resist French dominance and create a German national identity.
8. The Greek War of Independence – Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century. The rise of revolutionary nationalism in Europe triggered a war of independence among the Greeks, which began in 1821. Greek nationalists were supported by other Greeks in exile as well as many Western Europeans sympathetic to ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists celebrated Greece as the cradle of European civilization and mobilized public opinion in support of its struggle against the Muslim empire. The English poet Lord Byron raised funds and later joined the war, where he died of fever in 1824. Ultimately, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation.
9. The role of women in nationalists’ struggles – The issue of granting political rights to women had been controversial in the liberal movement, in which a large number of women had actively participated for years. Women formed their own political organizations, founded newspapers and took part in political meetings and demonstrations. Despite this, they were denied the right to vote during elections to the legislature. When the Frankfurt Parliament was held in St. Paul’s Church, women were admitted only as observers to stand in the gallery.
10. Aristocracy and the new middle classes – Socially and politically, the landed aristocracy was the most influential class on the European continent. Members of this class were linked by a common lifestyle that transcended regional divisions. They owned urban houses and estates in the countryside. They spoke French at political functions and in high society. Their families were often linked by marriage. But this powerful elite was a small group in terms of numbers. The majority of the population belonged to the peasantry. In the West, the bulk of the land was held by peasants and small owners, while in eastern and central Europe, landownership was characterised by vast estates cultivated by serfs.